March22, 2024International CourtofJusticeNGOsubmissionontheRequest forAdvisoryOpinionastoObligationsofStatesinrespectofclimatechange Briefsubmittedby: CamilaBustos,Assistant ProfessorofLawat theElisabeth HaubSchoolof Law atPaceUniversity Monica Iyer, Clinical Fellow and SeniorLecturingFellow, DukeUniversitySchoolofLaw Amali Tower, Founderand ExecutiveDirector, ClimateRefugeesRyan Plano, Project Officer, ClimateRefugees YumnaKamel,Co-FounderandExecutiveDirector, EarthRefuge Julia Neusner, Founderand Principal,HumanSecurityInitiative GenevièveMinville,PhDStudent,FacultyofEnvironmental and UrbanChange, YorkUniversity Thisbrief issubmittedunderSectionIII.3oftheproceduralrulesfollowedby theInternationalCourtofJusticegoverningAdvisoryOpinions.

AboutClimateDisplacement There is anincreasingconsensusthat climate change hassignificant implicationsforhumanrights protectionandStates’ humanrights obligations.Climate-related displacement has 1

emerged as a key challenge, as climate change impactssuchas floodingandagriculturaldisruptionforcemillionstoleavetheirhomes. 1 Whilepredictionsare contestedandthere is considerableneedforempiricalresearchinthisfield,oneWorldBankstudyestimatesthatwithoutsignificantclimatemitigationandadaptationefforts,by 2050therecouldbemorethan216millionpeopleinternallydisplacedbyslow-onsetdisasters, with143millionfromjust threeregions—LatinAmerica, sub-SaharanAfrica, andSouthAsia. 2 Displacement relatedto climate factors canbetemporary orpermanent.Itmay becausedbyslow-onseteventsofgradualprogression,suchascoastalerosionordroughts.Displacementcanalsostemfromrapid-onset events suchas landslides,floods,andhurricanes,or variouscombinationsoftheseevents.

Scholars have longdocumentedhowclimate change exacerbatesunderlyingvulnerabilitiesofindividualsandcommunities.Whileit istruethat rapid-onset weathereventslikeincreasinglypowerfulstormsanddisasters havedisplacedcommunitiestemporarilyorforextendedperiodsoftime,climatechangealonedoesnotusuallycausedisplacement. 3 Instead,environmentalorclimate-related events, especiallyslow-onset events like drought andsea-level rise,tendtointensify poverty, housinginsecurity, andeconomicinequality.

Climate change compoundsexistingharmsforpeoplelivingat themarginsofsociety, many ofwhomfacemultipleandintersectingdiscrimination,andmateriallycontributes to displacement.

For instance,“theworld’s poorest peopleare especiallyvulnerableto climate variabilityandenvironmentaldegradationduetotheirrelianceonforestsandnaturalresources.Withoutadequatetoolsandsupportfor thevulnerable,thosepushedinto migrationare at riskof beingexploitedandabused”. 4 Additionally, itiswell-establishedthat low-incomeandBIPOC(Black,Indigenous,andpeopleofcolor)communitiesaremorelikelytoexperiencenegativeimpactsofenvironmental 4 ChrisO’Connell, FromaVicioustoaVirtuousCycle: Addressingclimatechange, environmental destructionandcontemporaryslavery, ANTI -SLAVERY INTERNATIONAL (2021)https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/ASI_ViciousCycle_Report_web2.pdf at4. 3 Oli Brown, MigrationandClimateChange, at12, IOMMigrationRsch.

Ser. No. 31(2008),https://publications.iom.int/es/system/files/pdf/mrs-31_en.pdf. 2 VivianeClementetal., WorldBankGroup, Groundswell Part2: ActingonInternal ClimateMigration, at80, 83table6(2021),https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/158b2f56-a4db-5a2d-93b9-0070068fa084/download. 1 International OrganizationforMigration(IOM), MigrationandClimateChange, IOM, 11(2008),https://www.ipcc.ch/apps/njlite/srex/njlite_download.php?id=5866. 2

orclimate disasters. 5 Forhistoricallymarginalizedpopulations,climate change contributestosignificanthumanrightslossesanddevelopmentsetbacksthatunderpintheirdisplacement.

In its 2022Assessment Report,the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC)concluded,withhighconfidence,that “theintersectionofgenderwithrace,class,ethnicity,sexuality, Indigenousidentity, age, disability, income,migrant status andgeographicallocationoften compoundsvulnerabilityto climate change impactsandcreates furtherinjustice.” 6 Displacement hasdifferentialhumanrights impactsbasedongenderandis influencedbyseveral socio-political factors. 7 Displacement, whether domestic or international,canunderminethehumanrights of womenandgirlsby contributingto interruptededucation,economicinstability, reproductive injustice,gender-basedviolence,exploitation,andhumantrafficking. 8 Compared to men,womenfacegreater barriers to movement as a resultofcontinuedtraditionalgenderroles,householdobligations,andlimitedlanguageskills. 9 Relatedly, lesbian,gay, bisexual,transgender, queer, orquestioning, etc.(“LGBTQ+”)groupsarealreadyat heightenedriskofviolenceorotherformsofoppression,likepoliticalpersecution. 10 Preexistingsystemicinequitiescombinedwithdiscriminatory emergencyresponsepolicies 10 MEREDITH L.

WEISS AND MICHAEL J.

BOSIA , GLOBAL HOMOPHOBIA : STATES , MOVEMENTS , ANDTHE POLITICS OF OPPRESSION , 5-6(1sted.2013). 9 SeegenerallyGaëlleFerrant&MicheleTuccio, Howdofemalemigrationandgenderdiscriminationinsocialinstitutionsmutuallyinfluenceeachother?, ORGANISATIONFOR ECONOMIC CO -OPERATIONAND DEVELOPMENT (OECD)DEVELOPMENT CENTRE , WorkingPaperNo. 326, https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/WPAE%20326.pdf; seealsoAmeliaBleekeret. al., Advancinggenderequalityinenvironmental migrationanddisasterdisplacementintheCaribbean, STUDIES AND PERSPECTIVES SERIES -ECLACSUBREGIONAL HEADQUARTERS FOR THE CARIBBEAN , No. 98, Santiago, EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC), (2021).https://kmhub.iom.int/sites/default/files/publicaciones/advancing_gender_equality_in_environmental_migration_and_disaster_displacement_in_the_caribbean.pdf 8 BharatH.

Desai &MoumitaMandal, RoleofClimateChangeinExacerbatingSexual andGender-BasedViolenceagainstWomen: ANewChallengeforInternational Law, 51GLOBAL LAWAND POLICY (2021)137, 139-140; seegenerallyNancyM. Sidun&JudithL. Gibbons, Women, girls, andclimatechange: Humanrights, vulnerabilities, andopportunities, 58INT ’L J.

PSYCH . (Sept. 2023). 7 Rachel Sabates-Wheeler, Mappingdifferential vulnerabilitiesandrights: ‘opening’ accesstosocial protectionforforciblydisplacedpopulations, 7COMPARATIVE MIGRATION STUDIES 1, 7-9(Sept. 2019). 6 INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE , ClimateChange2022: Impacts, AdaptationandVulnerabilityat65,WorkingGroupII (IPCCSixthAssessmentReport, 2022)https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf(emphasisadded). 5 AneeshPatnaiketal., Racial DisparitiesandClimateChange, PRINCETON STUDENT CLIMATE INITIATIVE (Aug. 15, 2020),https://psci.princeton.edu/tips/2020/8/15/racial-disparities-and-climate-change.

SeegenerallyD. Kapua‘alaSproat,AnIndigenousPeople’sRighttoEnvironmental Self-Determination: NativeHawaiiansandtheStruggleAgainstClimateChangeDevastation, 35STAN . ENV ’T L.J. 157(2016). 3

burdenLGBTQ+communitieswithdisproportionate impactsof climate-relateddisasters anddisplacement. 11 Muchoftheacademicliteratureandmediacoverageonclimatedisplacementframestheissuethrougharacializedlens,primarilythroughtheperspectiveofGlobalNorthnationalsconcernedwith“unprecedentedincreasesincross-bordermigration”originatingfromtheGlobalSouth. 12 Asignificant portionofthestudiesonandresponsestoclimatedisplacementhaveembracedanationalsecurityframeworkthat buildsontheassumptionandcharacterizationofmigrationasa threat to nationalsecurity. 13 Conversationsaroundclimate migrationprojectionsandmodelingoftenraisethespecterofmassmigrationfromtheGlobalSouthtotheGlobalNorth,elicitinga bordersecuritynarrativeasopposedto thehumansecuritynarrativenecessary forglobalcooperation.Perhaps thisis best evidencedby howthewealthiest countriesspend2.3timesmoreonbordersecuritythanonclimatefinance. 14 Thisconceptualizationof climate displacement as a securitythreat disregards thesocialvulnerabilityfactors that shapedisplacement, whilereinforcingxenophobicconceptionsand“deep-seated fears andstereotypesof thedark-skinned,overbreeding, dangerouspoor” 15 crossingborders.Further, itlacksahumanrightsapproachandfailstocentertheneedsofthosewhoarebeingforciblydisplaced.

Climate change andhumandisplacement are increasinglyinterconnected,disproportionatelyimpactingtheworld’s poorest andmost vulnerablepeople.Countriesthatareleastresponsibleforclimatechangeareoftentheworstimpactedandexperiencethemostdisplacement.Bymid2023,conflicts,violenceanddisastersforciblydisplacedatleast114millionpeopleintheworld,with75percent ofpeoplehostedinlowandmiddle-incomecountries. 16 Morethanhalfofnew 16 UNHCR, Forceddisplacementcontinuestogrowasconflictescalates, (2023),https://www.unhcr.org/us/news/press-releases/unhcr-forced-displacement-continues-grow-conflicts-escalate 15 BetsyHartmann, RethinkingClimateRefugeesandClimateConflict: Rhetoric, RealityandthePoliticsofPolicyDiscourse, 22JINT ’L DEV . 233, 238(2010); MilesCulpepper, TheDebtWeOweCentral America, JACOBIN(Nov. 1,2018), https://jacobinmag.com/2018/11/centralamerica-migrant-caravan-trump; AndrewBaldwin, RacialisationandtheFigureoftheClimateChangeMigrant, 45ENV . &PLANNING 1474(2013). 14 ToddMilleret. al., Global ClimateWall, Howtheworld’swealthiestnationsprioritizebordersoverclimateaction,Transnational Institute, (Oct. 25, 2021), https://www.tni.org/en/publication/global-climate-wall at15. 13 Seee.g., TODD MILLER , STORMING THE WALL (2017). 12 CarmenG.

Gonzalez, ClimateJusticeandClimateDisplacement: EvaluatingtheEmergingLegal andPolicyResponses, 36WIS . INT ’L L.J. 366, 366–68(2019); seealsoCarmenG. Gonzalez, MigrationasReparation: ClimateChangeandtheDisruptionofBorders, 66LOY . L. REV . 401, 403(2020). Butcf. PAC .

ISLANDS STUDENTS FIGHTING CLIMATE CHANGE ET AL ., HOWTO COMMUNICATE ABOUT CLIMATE LINKED MOBILITY 4, (2022), availableathttps://drive.google.com/file/d/ 1H755rIfYaj3AoY3zU9m0U75Kl8lDA5cA(advisingagainstusing“crisislanguage,”includingphraseslike“unprecedentedmigration,”that“feedintothethreatnarrative”). 11 LeoGoldsmithet. al, Queerandpresentdanger: understandingthedisparateimpactsofdisastersonLGBTQ+communities, 46DISASTERS 946, 955(Oct. 2022). 4

internaldisplacements in 2023were asa resultof climate-relateddisasters suchasfloods,drought, wildfires andstorms. 17 Lessis knownaboutcross-bordermovements followingdisasters but70percent of allrefugeeslive in countriesneighboringtheirown. 18 Nearly60percent ofrefugeesandinternallydisplacedpeoplenowlive incountriesthat areamongthemostvulnerabletoclimatechange. 19 It shouldbenotedthat whilesignificant effortshave beenexpendedto providea range ofclimate displacement projections,robust data onactualcross-borderclimate displacement iswoefullylacking.Thelimited data availableindicates that themajorityof climate-relateddisplacement is occurringinternallywithincountry borders.Amajorityofthesedisplacementsare happeningin countrieswiththeleast capacityto respondto thesocial,protectionandhumanitarianneedsof theirdisplacedpopulations.And given thesedisproportionatedisplacementsarehappeninginGlobalSouthcountrieswiththeleastemissions,climate-drivendisplacement is an injusticethrust uponboththeinternallydisplacedindividualsandtheirgovernments.

It is worthnotingthat thevast majorityofclimate-relateddisplacement—whetherinternaloracrossborders—ishappeningbetweenGlobalSouthcountries,whichare disproportionatelyvulnerabletotheeffectsoftheclimatecrisis.Equally, itisimportanttonotethatfromaclimatejusticeandhumanrightsperspective,internalmovementscarryasmuchgravityascross-borderdisplacement.

Frontlineandvulnerablenations,despite contributingsignificantly lesstogreenhousegasemissions,are enduringinstabilityandheightenedlossesanddamages fromclimatechange. 20 LossandDamageLossesanddamagesasa resultofclimate change are feltdisproportionatelyinGlobalSouthcountries,whohavecontributedleasttoglobalcarbonemissionsandhavebenefitedleastfromthe industrializationand the fossilfuel-basedeconomiesthat led to the wealthanddevelopment ofGlobalNorthcountries.In2015,statepartiestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)adoptedtheParisAgreement,whichagreedinArticle8toavert,minimizeandaddresslossanddamageassociatedwiththeadverseeffectsofclimate 20 IngridBoasetal, “ClimateChangeandHumanMobilityintheGlobal South' inthePalgraveHandbookofSouth-SouthMobility”, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-39814-8_20 19 Id. 18 UNHCR, Climatechangeanddisplacement: themythsandthefacts, (2023),https://www.unhcr.org/us/news/stories/climate-change-and-displacement-myths-and-facts 17 GRID2023Internal displacementandfoodsecurity, Internal DisplacementMonitoringCentre(2022),https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2023/at9 5

change. 21 Whilethereisnoagreedupondefinitionof‘lossanddamage’(L&D)intheUNFCCC,the phrase is generally understoodto refer to the impacts—sometimesrepairable,butsometimesirreversible—arisingfromtheadverse effectsof climate change, whichincludesuddenonset eventslike disasters andextremeweatherevents,aswellasslowonset eventslike temperature rise,drought, sea-level rise,desertification,landandforest degradation,salinizationandlossofbiodiversity. 22 Peopleonthemoveasaresultofclimatechangemay experiencevariouslossesanddamages.Andwhile,forexample,thoseforcedto leave theirhomesby atropicalcyclonedemonstratethisvery clearly, so-called“voluntary” climate migrantscanalsoexperienceL&D.

In2013,thePeninsulaPrinciplesrecognizedthat “voluntary andinvoluntary relocationoftenresultintheviolation of humanrights, impoverishment, socialfragmentation and othernegativeconsequences”. 23 Indeed,thebinary ofvoluntary-involuntary obscuresthefactthat allpeopleon the move experiencesituationsof vulnerability, 24 especiallyin alreadyclimate-fragilecontexts.

Anotherclearthemethat emergesfrombothliteratureandfieldresearchisthatdisplacementitselfoftenconstitutesL&D, butitcanalsoamplify orextendL&Dcausedbyclimateimpacts. 25 TheL&D—botheconomicandnon-economic—thatstemfromclimatedisplacementarevariousandoftencontinueoveranextendedperiodoftime.Forexample,someonewholeavestheirancestralhomelanddueto floodingordrought conditionsdoesnotsimplylosetheirphysicalplaceof abode,they may alsobe forcedto abandontheirnative language andculturally 25 Humanmobilityandnon-economiclossanddamage: SubmissiontoinformtheNELsTechnical Paper2023,SecretariatofthePlatformonDisasterDisplacement(PDD)andLossandDamageCollaboration(L&DC), (Apr. 20,2023), s. 2.3,https://www.lossanddamagecollaboration.org/publication/pdd-and-l-dcsubmission-toinform-the-unfcccs-non-economic-losses-nels-technical-paper-2023-human-mobility-and-non-economic-loss-and-damage; ClimateRefugees,supranote22, 98. 24 ScottishGovernment, Practical ActionforAddressingLossandDamage, 49(Mar. 2023),https://www.gov.scot/publications/practical-action-addressing-loss-damage; ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 98. 23 ThePeninsulaPrinciplesonClimateDisplacementWithinStates, DisplacementSolutions, 2013, 12(preamble),https://www.displacementsolutions.org/_files/ugd/9ec010_a3c43e289e824b7c8f3a0229a01d03ce.pdf; ScottishGovernment, Practical ActionforAddressingLossandDamage, 40(Mar. 2023),https://www.gov.scot/publications/practical-action-addressing-loss-damage 22 Amali Tower&RyanPlano, ClimateChangeisControllingEverything, LetThemCompensateUs: StoriesofLossandDamageinKenya, ClimateRefugees(2023)https://www.climate-refugees.org/reports/kenya-loss-and-damage, 95 21 UNFCCC, TheParisOutcomeonLossandDamage,https://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/groups_committees/loss_and_damage_executive_committee/application/pdf/ref_8_decision_xcp.21.pdf 6

relevant places. 26 Thisis why it isimportant tomovebeyondasimplisticanalysisofmigrationdrivers, andconsiderhowmovement shapestheimpactspeopleexperience, 27 whichinturn,areexamplesofL&D. ThisiskeytoimprovingL&Ddatacollection,whichinadequatelyaccountsfordisplacement anditsvariouseffects,andthereforefailstofullyunderstandthescopeoftheissue.

Casestudiesonclimate displacement submittedto theUNexpertgrouponnon-economiclossesanddamages (NELD)demonstrated that most NELDincurred as a consequenceofdisplacement canbeavoidedby preparingfor, adequatelymanagingandeffectivelyresolvingsituationsthatariseindisplacementcontexts. 28 Thisnotonlyinformsactionsthatmustbetakenin displacement andhumanitariancontexts, butalsoinformstheneedfor new formsoffinancingthat addresstheuniquenature andneedsthat arisein climate change-induceddisplacementsituations.

Aftermany decadesof advocacyledby GlobalSouthcountries,the2023ConferenceoftheParties(COP28)to theUNFCCCestablisheda LossandDamageFundtosupportrecovery andcompensate communitiesexperiencingirreversiblelossesdueto climate change. 29 Giventhelackof attentiontowardsdisplacement outsideofhumanitariancontextsorothersituationsthat receivesignificant mediaattention,L&Dfinancemust bescaledupandmadeavailablefordisplacedpeopleandtheirspecificneedswithinandoutsideofspecificclimatechangeevents,suchasthosewhomay alreadybedisplacedbutare nowparticularlyvulnerableto climatechange asaresult.Inordertomaximizesupport,knowledge-gatheringmust occurthroughoutthephasesofdisplacement:before,during, andintheaftermathofadisaster.

Andofcourse,totrulyfulfillthemandate of theParisAgreement—specificallyitscallto avert,minimize,andaddressL&D—displacement must beacentralcomponent ofeffortsby allactors.Forexample,developingsafe andregularmigrationpathways now can be a key toolin avertingfuturedisplacement. 30 Ascivilsocietyorganizations,UNagencies,andgovernmentsgrapplewiththecomplexitiesofclimate displacement, theinextricablelinkbetweendisplacement andlossanddamageinthediscussionis key.

Asadvocatesin thelossanddamage andmobilityspaceoftenarticulate,attentionmust bepaidto displacement anditsimpactsinorderto meaningfullyassessand 30 ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 98. 29 UNFCCC, Operationalizationofthenewfundingarrangements, includingafundforrespondingtolossanddamage(2023), https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma5_auv_10g_LnDfunding.pdf 28 Ibid, s. 2.3; ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 99. 27 PDDandL&DC, supranote25, s. 2.1. 26 GuyJacksonetal., PassedthePointofNoReturn: ANon-EconomicLossandDamageExplainer, L&DC(2022),https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/605869242b205050a0579e87/63581776a7e3681e75e45c72_L%26DC_NELD_EXPLAINER_FULL_BRIEF_24102022.pdf; “Practical Action,”supranote23, 49, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 99. 7

addressL&Dfromclimate change.Andperhaps most critically, therearefundamentalhumanrightsat stake.UpholdingtherightsofpeopleonthemovedemandsallstakeholderseffectivelyaddressL&D, includingNELD. 31 AddressinglossesanddamagesasaresultofclimatechangethroughthenewlyoperationalizedLossandDamage Fundwillrequire significant financialresourcesfromhistoricpollutingdevelopedcountriesinorderto meet theurgent needsofaffectedcommunitiesintimeandscale.Currently, theFundremainswoefullyunderfunded.Asmany developingcountrieshavemadeclearduringinternationalnegotiations,fundingmust be new, additional,innovative,predictable,grant-based,andinlinewiththecommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilitiesandrespective capacities(CBDR-RC) principlesof theUNFCCC.It willalsoneedto bedistinctlyseparatefromfundingdirectedtohumanitariancrises. 32 Beyondtheissueofhowfundsarerealized,itisimportantthatfundsareaccessibleatnational,sub-national,andcommunitylevels.

As civilsociety has madeabundantly clearduringinternationalclimate change negotiations,climate financefunds,especiallythosethatspecificallyaddressL&D, must includewindows forlocalcommunitiestodirectlyaccessfundswithoutrelyingonbureaucratic,reluctant,orsimplyoverwhelmedgovernments.Relatedly, L&Dfinancemust be grant-based.Loansand otherdebt-incurringinstruments are whollyinappropriategiventhedisproportionateimpactsclimate-vulnerablecountriesarefacing, manyofwhomarealreadyfacedwithahighdebtburden. 33 Itisimportant torecognizethat financeforL&Disnotsimplyaquestionofprovidingmoneytothoseharmedby climatechange.Itisalsoaboutprotectingfundamentalhumanrightsandkeydevelopment gains,andpreparingforfuturedisplacement andotherimpacts. 34 Afailuretoactnowwillbedevastatingforcommunitiesaroundtheglobe. 34 ReinhardMechler, ColinMcQuistan&BarbaraRosenJacobson, Fallingthroughthegaps: howglobal failurestoaddresstheclimatecrisisareleadingtoincreasedlossesanddamages, ZurichFloodResilienceAlliance76, (2023)76,https://floodresilience.net/resources/item/falling-through-the-gaps-how-global-failures-to-address-the-climate-crisis-are-leading-to-increased-losses-and-damages/. 33 TheViciousCycle: ConnectionsBetweentheDebtCrisisandClimateCrisis, ActionAid(Apr. 2023),https://actionaid.org/publications/2023/vicious-cycle#downloads, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 99-100. 32 Id. 31 ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 99. 8

HumanRights-BasedApproachtoLossandDamageLossandDamage canbeseenashumanrights losses,development setbacks, andwoefullyinadequate effortsto protectdisplacedpeople.Givenstates’obligationsunderinternationalhumanrightslaw, suchrightsmustbeapartofanyapproachtotrulyaddressL&D. 35 Civilsocietyorganizationsandimpactedcommunitieshavehighlightedkeyareaswherehumanrightsprinciplesmust informthedevelopmentandoperationalizationofthefund.Forexample,commitmentstotheprincipleofnon-discrimination 36 areacriticalstartingpointtoensurethatmarginalizedcommunities—whotendtobearthebruntofclimateimpacts 37 —havetheiruniqueneedsrecognizedandultimatelymetaspartofL&Dfinanceprovision. 38 A humanrights-basedapproachisalsovitalinensuringL&Dfinanceandothertoolsmaximizepublicbenefitandprotectionsanddonotendupcausingnegative socialandenvironmentalimpacts. 39 Varioussafeguards wouldhelpprevent a L&D-specificformof maladaptation,inwhichclimatechangeadaptationmeasuresactuallyincreasevulnerability, 40 suchasmandatoryinvolvement of vulnerablecommunitiesin decision-makingandadherenceto international 40 LisaSchipper, Catchingmaladaptationbeforeithappens, NATURECLIMATECHANGE12(2022),https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01409-2, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101. 39 Id. 8-9, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101; CamilaBustos, Bruni Pizarro, &TabithaSookdeo, ClimateMigrationandDisplacement: ACaseStudyofPuertoRicanWomeninConnecticut, 55CONN.

L. REV. 781(2023); JulianaVélez-Echeverri &CamilaBustos, AHumanRightsApproachtoClimateDisplacement: ExamplesfromCentralAmericaandColombia, 31MICH. ST. INT’LL.

REV. 403(2023). 38 HumanRightsasaCompassforOperationalizingtheLossandDamageFund, (CIEL)(Feb. 2023),https://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Human-Rights-as-a-Compass-for-Operazionalizing-the-Loss-Damage-Fund_submission-Amnesty-and-CIEL_Feb-2023.pdf, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101. 37 Report: Inequalitiesexacerbateclimateimpactsonpoor, UNDepartmentofPublicInformation, (Oct. 3, 2016),https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/10/report-inequalities-exacerbate-climate-impacts-on-poor/.

SeealsoMarginalisedcommunitiesbearthebruntofclimatecrisisinUSA: Newreport, (Oct. 5, 2021),Environmental JusticeFoundation,https://ejfoundation.org/news-media/marginalised-communities-bear-the-brunt-of-climate-crisis-in-usa, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101 36 SustainableDevelopmentGoal 10is“ReducedInequalities”. SeeThe17Goals, UNDepartmentofEconomicandSocial Affairs-SustainableDevelopment.

Inaddition, variousinstrumentsencompassthisprinciple, mostnotablytheInternational CovenantonEconomic, Social andCultural Rights(includingGeneral CommentNo. 20), theInternational ConventionontheEliminationofAll FormsofRacial Discrimination, andtheConventionontheEliminationofAll FormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen.

SeealsoTheCoreInternational HumanRightsInstrumentsandthemonitoringbodies, OfficeoftheUNHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR), n.d.,https://www.ohchr.org/en/core-international-human-rights-instruments-and-their-monitoring-bodies; GeneralCommentNo. 20: Non-discriminationineconomic, social andcultural rights(art. 2, para. 2, oftheInternationalCovenantonEconomic, Social andCultural Rights,”UNCommitteeonEconomic, Social andCultural Rights(July22009), https://www.refworld.org/docid/4a60961f2.html, ClimateRefugees, supranote22101 35 HumanRightsasaCompassforOperationalizingtheLossandDamageFund, CenterforInternationalEnvironmental Law(CIEL)(Feb. 2023),https://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Human-Rights-as-a-Compass-for-Operazionalizing-the-Loss-Damage-Fund_submission-Amnesty-and-CIEL_Feb-2023.pdf, ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101 9

obligationsongender, laborrightsandstandards,andculturalpreservation, 41 to namejust afew.

Internationalhumanrights providea compassforaddressingtheharmsalreadycausedbyclimate change andpreventingor, whennotpossible,minimizingfuture harms.TherightsrecognizedintheInternationalBillofHumanRights—theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(UDHR),theInternationalCovenant onEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)andtheInternationalCovenant onCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR)—together, formthefoundationofinternationalhumanrightslaw, includingtherighttoanadequatestandardofliving, therighttohousing, andtheright tomovement,amongothers. 42 FailingtotakemeaningfulactiononL&D,andtherefore allowingclimate change to harmcommunitiesaroundtheworld,especiallyindisproportionate andunjust ways, constitutesa failure to upholdtheserightswhichapplytoeveryhumanbeing.

ExistingGapinProtection Existinglawat theinternational,regional,anddomesticlevelisinsufficienttoprovideadequateprotectionto climate displacedpeople. 43 Climate impactsalonedonotusuallyqualify anapplicant forrefugeestatus.Totheextentclimatedisplacedindividualscanaccesscross-borderprotection,it is typicallythroughadhocanddiscretionary measuresthat failto guaranteelong-termstatus.

IntheUnitedStates,forinstance,climatedisplacedpeoplemayqualifyforTemporaryProtectedStatus(TPS),a programthat temporarilyprotectspeoplealreadypresent intheUnitedStatesfrom return to countries withdangerous conditions,includingconditionscausedbyenvironmental disasters. 44 In othercontexts,receivingcountriesmay extendotherformsoftemporary protectionsuchashumanitarianvisasorprivatesponsorshipprograms.Forexample,Argentinahascreateda humanitarianprogramforclimate displacedpeoplerelocatingfrom 44 CareyDeGenaro, Comment, LookingInward: DomesticPolicyforClimateChangeRefugeesintheUnitedStatesandBeyond, 86U. COLO . L.

REV . 991, 992–96(2015)(explainingwhycurrentprocessesareinsufficientandproposingnewlegislationtofill thegaps); seealsoINT ’L REFUGEE ASSISTANCE PROJECT , ADVOCACY MEMOON CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT : KEY LEGAL LEVERS 2(2022),https://refugeerights.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Climate-Displacement-Advocacy-Memo-Nov-2022.pdf. 43 SeegenerallyHoseeinAyazi &ElsadigElsheikh, ClimateRefugees-TheClimateCrisisandRightsDenied, OTHERING &BELONGING INSTITUTE (Dec. 10, 2019), https://belonging.berkeley.edu/climaterefugees(arguing“thatacomprehensiveframeworkforclimate-induceddisplacedpersonsforcedtocrossinternational borderstobeconsidered“climaterefugees”isnecessary.”). 42 Universal DeclarationofHumanRights, UNGA, arts. 25, 26and13; International Bill ofHumanRights, OHCHR,https://www.ohchr.org/en/what-are-human-rights/international-bill-human-rights, ClimateRefugees, 101 41 HumanRightsasaCompass, supranote38, 8; ClimateRefugees, supranote22, 101. 10

CentralAmericanandCaribbeancountrieswhomeet certaineligibilitycriteria. 45 Theprogramrequirescivilsocietyorganizationsto sponsoreligibleapplicants.AsofMarch2024,however,theprivatesponsorshipprogramhasnotyetbeenimplemented. AnotherexampleisthatofBrazilfollowingthedevastating2010Haitiearthquake, 46 whichkilledhundredsofthousandsofHaitians,andcausedhundredsofthousandsmoretobedisplaced,andtofleetoothercountriesinpursuitofsafetyandstability.

Thoughearthquakesarecausedby tectonicprocesses,andtherefore categorizedasenvironmental(relatingto topography orterrain)asopposedtoclimate(trendsinweatherconditions)events, 47 Brazil’s responsetothesignificant influxof Haitianmigrants exemplifiesthetypeof protectionthat couldbenefitpeopledisplacedinthecontext ofclimatechange.Brazilhadneverbeforeexperiencedsuchaphenomenon,andsought to addresstheissuein2012throughtheintroductionofNormativeResolution97by Brazil’s NationalCouncilof Immigration,whichgrantedtemporary visastoHaitiansfora periodof five years onhumanitariangrounds. 48 Theinitiative allowedforthemigrationof tensof thousandsofHaitiansto Brazilintheyears that followed.Howevertheresolutiondidnotexplicitlyreferenceenvironmental (orclimate) displacement; nordiditaccount forlongertermsocialoreconomicintegration,leavingrecipients exposedto racialdiscrimination,andjobinsecurityyearsaftertheyarrived. 49 Onechallenge ofhumanitarianrelief isthat itisoftengrantedintheaftermathofrapid-onsetevents,leavingthosedisplacedby slow-onset eventslikedroughtsorerosionwithoutadequateprotection.Anotherchallengeisthatexistinghumanitarianpathwaysaregenerallynotdesignedto providepermanent protectionorapathway topermanent residenceandcitizenship.Thisisespeciallydifficultforthosewithouta safe placeto returnaftertemporary protectionends,especiallyiftheyweredisplacedbyslow-onsetdisasters.

AsylumandRefugeeLaw Refugee and asylumlaw provideslimited protectionfor climate-displacedpeoplewhoexperiencepersecution.Research hasshownmany asylumseekers experiencedevastatingclimate-related disasters suchas hurricanes,droughts, andfloods,whichexacerbate their 49 Id. 48 DavidCremins, TheABCsofSouthAmericanPolicyResponsestoClimateDisplacement, EarthRefuge(Feb. 282024), https://earthrefuge.org/the-abcs-of-south-american-policy-responses-to-climate-displacement/ 47 A.

Buis, CanClimateAffectEarthquakes, OrAretheConnectionsShaky?, NASAClimateChange(2019)https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2926/can-climate-affect-earthquakes-or-are-the-connections-shaky/ 46 LindseyN. Kingston, HaitiansSeekingRefugeinBrazil, 28PEACEREVIEW482-489(2016) 45 DispositionNo. 891/2022, May19, 2022, [34.923]B.O. 63(Arg.). 11

conditionsofsocialandeconomicvulnerability. 50 Asylumseekershaveidentifiedthedestructionof theirhomes,agricultural lands,and businessesdue to climate-related causesas acontributingfactor to theirdecisionsto fleetheirhomecountry. 51 Refugee protectionisavailableto individualswhofearpersecutionin theirnationof origin. 52 Persecutionin thecontext ofthisframeworkrequiresproofofatargetedthreatagainstthatindividualonthebasisof theiridentity(e.g., nationality, race,religiousbelief, political opinion,orbelongingto aparticularsocialgroup).Thus,individualsdisplacedby climate impactsalonegenerallydonotqualifyforrefugeeprotection. 53 Althoughtheinternationalrefugeeframeworkwasnotdesignedto protectclimate displacedpeople,it certainlyoffers the possibilityof protectionfor thoseindividualswhocandemonstrate that they meet the eligibilityrequirements underthe law.

For instance,environmentaldefenders whocanshowthat they werepersecutedonaccount ofaprotectedidentitymay be eligibleforasylum. 54 TheU.N.HighCommissionerforRefugeeshasissuedspecialguidancein theclimate displacement context, reflectingan increasingrecognitionamongtheinternationalcommunitythat peopledisplacedby climate change may meet thecriteriaforprotectionunderinternationalrefugeelaw. 55 In2024,UNHCRreleasedadditionalguidanceto clarify theapplicationofinternationallawtotheprotectionof peopledisplacedacrossborders in thecontext of climate change andenvironmentaldisasters, buildingon2020guidance. 56 UNHCRrecognizedthat underthe1951RefugeeConvention,thefollowinggroupsofpeoplemayfallunderthe“refugee”definition: 56 UNHCR, Climatechangeimpactsandcross-borderdisplacement: International refugeelawandUNHCR’smandate(2024),https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-note-climate-change-international-refugee-law-and-unhcrs-mandate-dec-2023 55 Id. 54 UNHCR, Legal ConsiderationsRegardingClaimsforInternational ProtectionMadeintheContextoftheAdverseEffectsofClimateChangeandDisasters¶¶7–9(2020), https://www.refworld.org/docid/5f75f2734.html. 53 Seee.g., International RefugeeAssistanceProject(IRAP), ClimateDisplacementClientStory: Isabel,https://refugeerights.org/issue-areas/climate-displacement; FloraBensadon, France’sFirstClimateRefugee–ASignofaPromisingFutureforClimateMigration?, EarthRefuge(March18, 2021),https://earthrefuge.org/frances-first-climate-refugee-a-sign-of-a-promising-future-for-climate-migration/. 52 UnitedNationsConventionrelatingtotheStatusofRefugees, Article1(2), openedforsignatureJuly28, 1951, 19U.S.T. 6259, 189U.N.T.S. 137. 51 Id. 50 International RefugeeAssistanceProject(IRAP), U.S.

CommitteeforRefugeesandImmigrants, andHumanSecurityInitiative(HUMSI), ClimateofCoercion: Environmental andOtherDriversofCross-BorderDisplacementinCentral AmericaandMexico, (March2023)https://refugeerights.org/news-resources/climate-of-coercion-environmental-and-other-drivers-of-cross-border-displacement-in-central-america-and-mexico. 12

1. “Peoplefleeingconflictorviolencewhichmay becausedorexacerbatedby theeffectsof climate change or disaster, renderingtheState unableorunwillingtoprotectthevictimsandleavingthematriskofpersecution.”2. “Environmental defenders, activists or journalists targeted andpersecuted for defending, conservingorreportingonecosystemsandresourcesorGovernment responsestoclimatechangeeffects,whichmay beconsideredapoliticalstance.”3. “Peoplebelongingto particulargroups – suchaswomen,children,theelderlyanddisabled-disproportionatelysufferingthegreatestimpactofclimatechange, compoundedby pre-existing discrimination,gender-basedviolence,human trafficking and child marriage.

In addition,minoritygroups,indigenouspeopleorothers whoarealreadymarginalizedorvulnerable- whoare deniedaccessto resourcesorassistanceorare excludedfromdisasterriskreductionstrategiesbefore oraftera climate-induceddisaster.

Further, wheretheadverseeffectsof climate change leadto foodinsecurityorfamine, andwhere theState is unwillingorunableto ensure non-discriminatory accesstofoodforcertaingroups,ariskofpersecutionforthosepeoplemayarise.” UNHCR’s recent guidancealsodiscussedregionalrefugeelegalinstruments,includingthe1969OAU Conventionon SpecificAspectsof Refugee Problemsin Africa andtheCartagenaDeclarationonRefugeesof1984intheAmericas.

Several advocacyorganizationshave startedtrainingimmigrationlawyers workingonasylumcaseson how climate change may intersectwiththeirclients’ claims.For example,theInternationalRefugeeAssistanceProject 57 andtheCenterforGenderandRefugeeStudieshavepublishedtrainingmaterialsontheways inwhichclimatedisplacedindividualsmay beabletoavail themselves of protectionunderU.S.law andconsiderationsforadvocatesarguingforeligibilitywithintheexistingasylumframework. 58 Inarecentadvisory, CGRSrecommends: Althoughnotallcross-borderdisplacement causedby climate change willgiverisetoasylumeligibility, climatechangeoftenexacerbatesexistinginequalitiesina societyby contributingto conflict,violenceandsevere economicdeprivation 58 CenterforGenderandRefugeeStudies, AsylumClaimsforIndividualsFleeingClimateChangeorEnvironmentalDisasters: MakingtheBestUseofExistingLegal Frameworks(June14, 2023),https://cgrs.uclawsf.edu/our-work/publications/asylum-claims-individuals-fleeing-climate-change-or-environmental-disasters. 57 International RefugeeAssistanceProject, PracticeGuide: ClimateChange, Environmental Disasters, andU.S.RefugeeProtection(March2022).https://refugeerights.org/news-resources/practice-guide-climate-change-environmental-disasters-and-u-s-refugee-protection. 13

tiedto the[1951Refugee]Convention’s protectedgrounds.Therefore, ratherthanassumethat asylum[] is unavailablefor climate-displacedindividuals,advocatesmay beableto buildcaseswithcarefulbackgroundresearch,factualdevelopment,andlegalanalysistoincludepersonsadverselyaffectedbyclimatechangeanddisasters. 59 RegionalandBilateralInitiatives Internationally, regionalandbilateralinitiativeshaveemergedtoaddressclimatedisplacement.InAfrica,therecentlylaunchedAfricanGuidingPrinciplesontheHumanRightsofAllMigrants,RefugeesandAsylumSeekers 60 andacompanionStudyonAfricanResponsestoMigrationandtheProtectionofMigrantRights 61 —adoptedbytheAfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’Rights—includedabroaddefinitionofmigrant,aswellasthefirst globaldefinitionofaclimatemigrantandclimaterefugee. 62 TheKampalaConventionis theworld’s onlylegallybindingregionalinstrument oninternaldisplacement.TheKampalaConventionseeks toupholdthe1998GuidingPrinciplesonInternalDisplacement acrossallAfricanStates,observingthat, “StatesPartiesshalltake measurestoprotectandassistpersonswhohavebeeninternallydisplacedduetonaturalorhumanmadedisasters, includingclimate change.” 63 At least 33MemberStatesoftheAfricanUnionhavebecomePartiestotheKampalaConventionthusfar.

In theAmericas,several LatinAmerican andselectCaribbeancountrieshave adoptedthebroaderrefugee definitiondevelopedin the 1984CartagenaDeclaration,whichdefinesrefugeesaspeople“whohave fledtheircountry becausetheirlives,safetyorfreedomhavebeenthreatenedby . . .”, amongotherthreats,“massiveviolationsofhumanrights”or“other 63 AfricanUnionConventionfortheProtectionandAssistanceofInternallyDisplacedPersonsinAfrica(KampalaConvention), Art.

V(4), https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36846-treaty-kampala_convention.pdf 62 AlsoinAfrica, theIntergovernmental AuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)hasadoptedtheFreeMovementProtocolsofPersons, whichrecognizesthe“positiveeffectsofmigrationthatcanmitigatetheimpactsofpoverty,conflict, unemploymentandunderemployment, butalsodrought, disasters, climatechangeandenvironmentaldegradationthatdrivedisplacementandmigration,”aswell astheIGADProtocol onTranshumance, whichaimstoaddressthespecificneedsofpastoralistsaffectedbydroughtandtheextremeeffectsofclimatechange.

AmaliTowerandRyanPlano, “ClimateChangeisControllingEverything, LetThemCompensateUs”: StoriesofLossandDamageinKenyaat86-87, (Aug. 14, 2023), https://www.climate-refugees.org/reports/kenya-loss-and-damage 61 AfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’ Rights, StudyonAfricanResponsestoMigrationandtheProtectionofMigrantRights, (Nov. 8, 2023),https://achpr.au.int/en/soft-law/study-african-responses-migration-and-protection-migrant-rights 60 AfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’ Rights, AfricanGuidingPrinciplesontheHumanRightsofAllMigrants, RefugeesandAsylumSeekers, (Oct. 20, 2023),https://achpr.au.int/en/soft-law/african-guiding-principles-human-rights-all-migrants-refugees 59 Id. 14

circumstanceswhichhaveseriouslydisturbedthepublicorder.” 64 Thisdefinitionhasbeenusedinthepasttoofferprotectiontoindividualsdisplacedbyenvironmentaldisasters. Morerecently, AustraliaandTuvalusignedtheFalepiliUniontreaty.

Thetreatysetsaprecedentby explicitlyidentifyingclimate change asanexistentialthreat toTuvaluanditscitizens. 65 Thetreatyrecognisesthat “climatechangeisTuvalu’sgreatestnationalsecurityconcern”, andseeksto providethecitizensof Tuvaluwitha specialhumanmobilitypathway to accessAustraliaunderpinnedby a sharedunderstandingandcommitment to ensuringhumanmobilitywithdignity”. 66 TheFalepiliTreatyisnovelforanumberofreasons.Itisexplicitlydedicatedtohumanmobilitylinkedtoclimatechangewithoutdeemingthistheultimatesolutiontosuchanuancedchallenge.

Thetreaty recognizesbothintroducinga safe andlegal route to movement, andpreservationoftheright to stay inresponsetoachangingclimate.Most importantly, itisthefirstlegallybindingbilateralinstrumentattheintersectionofclimatechangeandmigration.

LegislativeProposals A recent legislative exampleofprotectioncomesfromColombia,whereagroupoflawmakersintroducedlegislationin2023torecognizeforceddisplacement asaresultofclimatechange. 67 Ifpassed,thelegislationwould“recognizetheexistenceofforcedinternaldisplacementduetocausesassociatedwithclimate change andenvironmentaldegradation”, providingsocialandlegal protectionsamongst others. 68 OtherexamplesincludemarkerlegislationintheUnitedStates, where Senator Markey andRepresentative Velázquez have introducedtheClimateDisplacedPersonsAct(CDPA).TheCDPAwould“enactanationalstrategythat wouldprovideamore equitableimmigrationpathway to theUnited Statesforpeopledisplacedby climatechangeandcriticalsupportforpeopleaffectedbyclimatedisastersinternationally.” 69 69 PressRelease, EdwardMarkey, Senator, NydiaVelazquez, Representative, AheadofCOP28, SenatorMarkey,CongresswomanVelázquezAnnounceLegislationtoCreatePathwayforPeopleDisplacedbyClimateChange, (Nov.16, 2023), 68 Amali TowerandRahul Balasundaram, ColombiaMovesClosertoRecognizingInternal ClimateDisplacement,ClimateRefugees, (May30, 2023). https://www.climate-refugees.org/spotlight/2023/5/30-colombia 67 INFORMEDEPONENCIAPARAPRIMERDEBATEDELPROYECTODELEYNO. 299DE2022-CÁMARA-“PORMEDIODELACUALSEESTABLECELADEFINICIÓNDEDESPLAZAMIENTOFORZADOPORCAUSASCLIMÁTICAS, SEFIJANLINEAMIENTOSPARASUIDENTIFICACIÓNYSEDICTANOTRASDISPOSICIONES, (Mar. 2023)https://www.camara.gov.co/camara/visor?doc=/sites/default/files/2023-03/Informe%20de%20Ponencia%201er%20Debate%20PL%20299%20de%202022%20-%20Desplazamiento%20por%20causas%20clim%C3%A1ticas.docx" 66 Australia-TuvaluFalepili Uniontreaty, Austl.-Tuvalu, Art. 1¶b, Austl.

Dept. ofForeignAffairsandTrade, Nov. 9,2023, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/tuvalu/australia-tuvalu-falepili-union-treaty 65 YumnaKamel, WhatDoestheWorld’sFirstBilateral ClimateMobilityTreatyMeanforTuvalu?(Nov. 15, 2023),https://earthrefuge.org/what-does-the-worlds-first-bilateral-climate-mobility-treaty-mean-for-tuvalu/ 64 UNHCR, TableNo. 1. Definitionofrefugees(Cartagena)LatinAmericancountriesthathaveincorporateditintotheirNational legislation(inchronological order)(June2017)https://www.refworld.org.es/docid/59c29a094.html 15

ManagedRetreatandPlannedCommunityRelocation Somepractitioners andscholars have cautiouslyproposed“managedretreat” asaninterimsolutionwhilecountriesandorganizationsworktowardslongtermsolutionsto mitigate theeffectsofclimate change.Thisrefers to theplannedrelocationofcommunitiesfacingsevereclimaterisks.However, theseprocessescanoftenberiddledwithsignificantpolitical,social,andeconomicchallenges.

To conductmanaged retreat or plannedrelocationeffectively, thefollowingfactorsareessential:(1)steadyandrobustcommunicationbetweenallstakeholders, 70 (2)just compensationforthelossof thoserelocating, 71 (3)voluntary participationofthoserelocating, 72 (4)takinginto account theconsiderationsofreceivingareas, 73 and(5)designingplansto bespecificandlocalizedto best serve a community. 74 It is essentialthat managedretreat and/orplannedcommunityrelocationprocessescenterthepreferencesofimpactedcommunitiesandindividuals.

EnablingtheRighttoStay Whileit is necessary to closeprotectiongaps forthosemigratingin thecontext ofclimatechange, it is alsoimperative to take immediate andforcefulclimate mitigationactionsandenablecommunity-driveninsituadaptationoptionsthatwillpermitpeopletochoosetostayintheirhomes.Asmigrationis a right, 75 thenintheclimatecontext,policiesaddressingclimatechange impactsmust alsoupholdtherights of communitiesandindividualsto stay. 76 Ininternationallaw, supportfortheright to stay canbefoundinArticle12oftheInternationalCovenant on CivilandPolitical Rights (ICCPR),whichtheUnited NationsHumanRightsCommittee hasinterpreted as necessarilycontainingprotectionsagainst bothinternaland 76 SeegenerallyMonicaIyer&KerilynSchewel, ArticulatingandClaimingtheRighttoStay, 38GEO .

IMMIGRATION L. J.(forthcoming2024). 75 Universal DeclarationofHumanRights, G.A. Res. 217A(III), U.N. Doc. A/810, atArt. 13(1948). 74 ElizabethFeris, ClimateChange, Migration, Law, andGlobal Governance, 44N.C. J. INT ’L 425, 456;RobinBronin,Rights, ResilienceandCommunity-LedRelocation: CreatingaNational GovernanceFramework, 45HARBINGER 25, 34(2021). 73 RobertR.M. Verchick&LynseyR. Johnson, WhenRetreatistheBestOption: FloodInsuranceafterBiggert-watersandOtherClimateChangePuzzles, 47J. MARSHALL L. REV . 695, 700(2013). 72 Id. at6. 71 A.R.

Siders, Social JusticeImplicationsofU.SManagedretreatbuyoutprograms, 239CLIMATIC CHANGE 1, 4-5(2018).;KatherineLieberknecht&Mueller, PlanningforEquitableClimateRelocation: GapsinKnowledgeandaProposal forFutureDirections, 38JOURNAL OF PLANNING LITERATURE 229, 231(2023). 70 Braggetal., CommunicatingManagedRetreatinCalifornia, 13WATER 1, 8(2021). https://www.markey.senate.gov/news/press-releases/ahead-of-cop28-senator-markey-congresswoman-velazquez-announce-legislation-to-create-pathway-for-people-displaced-by-climate-change 16

cross-borderdisplacement. 77 Itisalsoinformedbytherighttoadequatehousing 78 andtherightto protectionfrominterferencewithprivate andfamilylife, 79 bothof whichrecognize theimportanceofhomeasanelement ofa lifelivedwithdignity.

ProtectionfromenvironmentaldisplacementhasalsobeeninterpretedbytheU.N.SpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironmenttobeanelementoftherighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment. 80 ParticularlegalprotectionsapplytoIndigenousPeoples,whosetiestotheirtraditionallandarerecognized andpreserved in the InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO) ConventiononIndigenousPeoples,theU.N.DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,andtheICCPR,asaffirmedby decisionCCPR/C/135/D/3624/2019oftheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommitteeregardingDanielBillyandothers against Australia(the“TorresStraitIslanders case”). 81 TheCommittee considered thecomplaint brought by theIndigenousIslanders whichoutlinedAustralia’s variousfailuresto protectfourIslands—Boigu,Poruma,WarraberandMasig—andtheirIndigenousinhabitants fromtheimpactsof climate change, thereby violatingamongstotherthings,“theIslanders’ close,spiritualconnectionwiththeirtraditionallands,andthedependenceof theircultural integrityonthehealthoftheirsurroundingecosystems.” 82 TheCommittee’s decisioninfavoroftheIslanders placedtheonusonAustraliatotakeappropriatemeasuresto mitigate theimpactsof climate change upontheIslandsandIslanders, andtoengage inmeaningfuldiscoursewiththeIslanders withaviewtocompensationforthelossessuffered dueto Australia’s shortcomings.TheCommittee’s landmarkdecisionhasprovidedclarityasto theinterpretationof States’obligationsundertheICCPRto protectthehumanrightsoftheirinhabitantsthroughclimatechangemitigationandcompensation.

Whilemany assumethat climate impactswillinevitablyleadto relocation,many ofthoseinclimate-affected communitiesare bothclearlyexpressinga preferencefor stayingin theirhomesandofferingpolicyandpracticalsolutions,suchasturningbacktotraditionalagriculturalandlandmanagement techniques,that willenablethemtodoso. 83 Thoughmanyothersmight 83 SeegenerallyMonicaIyer&KerilynSchewel, ArticulatingandClaimingtheRighttoStay, 38GEO . IMMIGRATION L.

J.(forthcoming2024). 82 Id. 81 OHCHR, (2022)AustraliaviolatedTorresStraitislanders’ rightstoenjoycultureandfamilylife, UNCommitteefinds.https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/09/australia-violated-torres-strait-islanders-rights-enjoy-culture-and-family 80 DavidBoyd(Special Rapporteurontheissueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean, healthyandsustainableenvironment), Righttoahealthyenvironment: goodpractices, ¶¶68-69, U.N. Doc.A/HRC/43/53(Dec. 30, 2019). 79 See, e.g., Cyprusv. Turkey, Apps.

Nos. 6780/74&6950/75, 99(July10, 1976), https://perma.cc/67QN-EAXM. 78 RonanMcDermott&PatGibbons, Humanrightsandproactivedisplacement: determiningtheappropriatebalancebetweenthedutytoprotectandtherighttoremain, 41DISASTERS587, 592(2017). 77 U.N. HumanRightsCommittee, CCPRGeneral CommentNo. 27: Article12(FreedomofMovement), U.N. Doc.CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9(Nov. 2, 1999). 17

prefertoopt forrelocationasanadaptationsolution,they areunabletodosoduetoresourceconstraints or otherconsiderations. 84 Theultimate goalshouldbe neitherpreventingnorrequiringrelocation,butrathercreatingasystemthatallowsallpeopletochoosetheirplaceofresidenceinsafety, equality, anddignity.

Onekey element ofaccomplishingthisgoalislimitingclimatechangetothemaximumextentpossible.States, particularlythosethat have contributed significantly to greenhousegasemissions,haveahumanrightsobligationtomoveimmediatelyanddecisivelytowardsendingsuchemissions,inparticularby endingglobalrelianceonfossilfuels.Thisisalsoenshrinedinthelegal principleof “commonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilities”withintheUNFCCC. 85 Oneimportant stepthat Statescantakeinthisareaistoendfossilfuelsubsidies.However, a2020studyrecognizedthat G20countries,at least, “are movingin thewrongdirection”whenitcomestoendingtheirsupportforfossilfuels. 86 Astrengthenedcommitmenttoclimatechangemitigationeffortsis a key element ofaddressingthehumanrightsimpactsofclimate-relateddisplacement.

Statesthat have contributedthemost to climate change alsohave anobligationto supportadaptationeffortsthroughinternationalcooperation. 87 Thismeansnotjust providingsufficientlevelsof climate finance(notingthat alloftheUNFCCCAnnex 1 countriesevaluatedby theClimate ActionTrackerare currentlyratedas“Insufficient,” “HighlyInsufficient,” or“CriticallyInsufficient” in thearea of climate finance) 88 andensuringthat suchfinanceis equitablydistributedbetweenmitigationandadaptationeffortsandaddressinglossanddamage,butalsoensuringthat fundingfor climate adaptationprojectsgoesto community-ledprojectsthatincorporateahumanrights-basedapproach. 89 89 SeealsoHosseinAyazi &ElsadigElsheikh, ClimateRefugeesFacts, Findings, andStrategiesfor‘LossandDamage’,(July27. 2023), Othering&BelongingInstitute (July27. 2023),https://belonging.berkeley.edu/climate-refugees-facts-findings-strategies(arguingthat“Global Northcountries,institutions, andindustriesasculpablefortheclimatecrisisandassertsthatactionontheirpartisessential tomitigatingthecrisisofclimate-induceddisplacementbyensuringthesaferesettlementofclimaterefugees, andfosteringdiversifiedclimate-resilienteconomiesandjusttransitionsacrosstheGlobal SouthandGlobal North 88 CLIMATE ACTION TRACKER , https://climateactiontracker.org(lastvisitedFeb. 28, 2023). 87 Suchapositionwasformallyadoptedin2009inCopenhagenattheUnitedNationsConferenceoftheParties15(COP15), whendevelopedcountries(historicpolluters)committedtomobilizing100billionUSDannuallytohelpdevelopingcountries(historicnon-polluters)adapttoclimatechange.

Todate, thiscommitmenthasnotbeenfullymet, withannual climateadaptationfundingfallingwoefullybelowthe100billionUSDgoal. OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment, ClimateFinanceandtheUSD100billiongoal, (Nov. 16, 2023)OECD,https://www.oecd.org/climate-change/finance-usd-100-billion-goal/. 86 INT ’L INST . SUSTAINABLE DEV .

ET AL ., DOUBLING BACK AND DOUBLING DOWN : G20SCORECARDONFOSSIL FUEL FUNDING iv(2020),https://www.iisd.org/publications/g20-scorecard. 85 UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange, openedforsignature4June1992, 1771UNTS30822(enteredintoforce21March1994), Art. 3, para. 1; Art. 4, para. 1. 84 E.g., IngridBoasetal., Climatemobilities: migration, im/mobilitiesandmobilityregimesinachangingclimate, 48J. ETHNIC &MIGRATION STUD . 3365(2022). 18

Conclusion Supportingcommunitieswhowishtostayinplace,whileaffirminginternationalmigrationasanimportant adaptationstrategy, is essentialto buildinganequitableresponseto theclimatecrisis.Nationalgovernmentsshoulddevelopproceduresinplacetofacilitateplannedmigration,resettlement, andrelocation,butkeepthemin mindaslast resortmeasures.Communities’righttostayinplaceandreturnwhenpossiblemustbeupheld.

Fromahumanrightsperspective,pushback 90 policiesthatforcepeoplebacktotheircountryoforiginand/orto unsafe third countriesandphysicallyprevent arrivingmigrants andasylumseekers fromenteringa State’s territory, violate that State’s protectionobligationsunderinternationallaw.

Displacedpersons,refugees,andmigrantsalikeshouldbefreeto“exercis[e]theirrightsto leave any country orterritory, notto bedetainedarbitrarily, toseekandenjoyasylum,andtohaveindividualrightsanddutiesdeterminedinadueprocessproceeding.” 91 AstheGlobalCompactonMigrationstateswemust “ensureeffectiverespect,protectionandfulfillment ofthehumanrightsofallmigrants,regardlessoftheirmigrationstatus,acrossallstagesofthemigrationcycle”, while“reaffirm[ing]thecommitment to eliminate allformsofdiscrimination,includingracism,xenophobiaandintoleranceagainst migrants andtheirfamilies.” 92 92 Global CompactforSafe, OrderlyandRegularMigration, Art. 15para. 6, 13July2018, U.N.

Doc.A/CONF.231/3(2018).https://refugeesmigrants.un.org/sites/default/files/180713_agreed_outcome_global_compact_for_migration.pdf 91 Id. at12. 90 Special Rapporteuronthehumanrightsofmigrants, Reportonmeanstoaddressthehumanrightsimpactofpushbacksofmigrantsonlandandatsea, (May2021),https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-migrants/report-means-address-human-rights-impact-pushbacks-migrants-land-and-sea.

TheSpecial Rapporteurdescribes“pushbacks”as“variousmeasurestakenbyStateswhichresultinmigrants, includingasylumseekers, beingsummarilyforcedbacktothecountryfromwheretheyattemptedtocrossorhavecrossedaninternational borderwithoutaccesstointernational protectionorasylumproceduresordeniedofanyindividual assessmentontheirprotectionneedswhichmayleadtoaviolationoftheprincipleofnon-refoulement.” alike.”); seealsoJaneMcAdam, HowtheICJcouldshapeprotectionforpeopledisplacedinthecontextofclimatechange, ResearchingInternal Displacement(Jan. 24, 2024),https://researchinginternaldisplacement.org/short_pieces/how-the-icj-could-shape-protection-for-people-displaced-in-the-context-of-climate-change (recognizingthat“[d]islocationfromhome, lossoflandandcascadingeffectsonecosystems, livelihoodsandknowledgerepresentsomeofthegreatestformsoflossanddamageforourpeople–forbothcurrentandfuturegenerations.

Werecognisethatmovementawayfromhomecanresultfrom, beaformof, andcauselossanddamageofaneconomicandnon-economicnature.”). 19

Climatedisplacementposesatremendouschallenge,butitisoneforwhichwestillhavetimetoplanandprepare.By protectingcommunities’righttostay, implementingahuman-rightsbasedapproachtomigrationpolicies,andstrengtheninginternationalcommitmentstoclimatechangemitigation,Statescanleadthewayinbuildingajustandinclusiveresponsetotheclimatecrisis. 20